Since hydroxyapatite is currently mainly derived from chemical synthesis, its extraction from animal waste would offer the possibility of obtaining a biomaterial with interesting stability, biocompatibility, and inertness features ( Kowalski et al., 2008). This mineral is the primary constituent of bones, calcified cartilage tissues and teeth and finds large use in craniofacial, oral, maxillofacial, and orthopedic applications. Besides, use of mammalian collagen is a hurdle in the development of kosher and halal products, due to religious factors ( Wang et al., 2014).Īnimal bones have been recently exploited as a source of natural hydroxyapatite. ![]() Even if currently the primary sources of commercial collagen are bovine and porcine skin, bones, and hides, in recent decades, the production of land-based animal’s collagen has decreased, due to the concerns about outbreaks of BSE, foot mouth disease, and other prion diseases. In addition, based on the excellent emulsifier and stabilizing properties of gelatin, it is used in cosmetic emulsions and foams ( Mokrejs et al., 2009). Gelatin is also widely used in the pharmaceutical industry, to produce capsules, medicated tablets, and pastilles and can also be turned into sterile sponges used in surgery. Both collagen and gelatin are widely used in various industrial sectors: collagen can be used as emulsifier and filler in meat products, while gelatin is added to a wide range of foods, forming a major ingredient in jellied desserts, aspics, and as a stabilizer for ice cream and other frozen desserts. The controlled hydrolysis of collagen produces gelatin. Moreover, both hides and bones contain large quantities of collagen, which is the most abundant animal structural protein, representing about 30% of the total animal protein content ( Pal et al., 2015). The latter have been used as source for phosphoric acid production, phosphate source for industry, agricultural soil enrichment, heavy metals immobilization in soil or water, and for the development of phosphate rich materials and for biosorbents to be used in wastewater treatment ( Hodson et al., 2000 Deydier et al., 2005). Therefore, particularly interesting is the valorization strategy based on the incineration of meat and bone meals, leading to ashes rich in phosphate and cadmium. However, as a result of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) crisis in the European beef industry, the use of meat and bone meal for cattle feed has not been allowed since 2000. These substrates have been commonly used in animal feed and as ingredients for pet food, due to their high concentration of available essential amino acids, minerals, and vitamin B12. ![]() The latter consists in cooking, defatting, and grinding of meat waste to obtain two separate fractions of fat and flour, generally referred to as meat and bone meals. Stella Plazzotta, Lara Manzocco, in Saving Food, 2019 10.5.2.1 Meat and poultryīlood, hides/skins, and bone meals are prepared from meat waste by the rendering process.
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